Survey Methods for Ocean Economic Activity

1. Outcome

This Circular provides guidance on survey methods for collecting data on ocean economic activity. Readers will understand how to design and implement business surveys targeting ocean-related establishments, conduct household surveys capturing ocean-related employment and consumption, apply appropriate sampling designs for the ocean economy, and ensure quality in survey-based ocean data. By applying this guidance, statistical offices can generate robust estimates of the ocean economy's contribution to employment, production, and income that are suitable for integration with broader national accounts frameworks and ocean accounting systems. These survey methods support three principal decision use cases: ocean economy measurement for compiling the accounts described in TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean and TG-2.5 Structure and Function of the Ocean Economy, employment surveys for deriving labour market indicators under TG-3.4 Flows from Economy to Environment, and tourism expenditure surveys for measuring coastal and marine tourism's economic contribution. The sampling designs in Section 3.3 and quality assurance procedures in Section 3.4 align with the overarching quality framework established in TG-0.7 Quality Assurance. Where survey-based approaches intersect with administrative data, readers should also consult TG-4.3 Administrative Data Sources for guidance on integration strategies. Key terms introduced here are defined in TG-0.6 Glossary.

2. Requirements

This Circular requires familiarity with:

• TG-0.1 General Introduction to Ocean Accounts -- provides the conceptual framework and key components of Ocean Accounts, including the relationship between environmental and economic accounting frameworks that survey data are designed to populate.

• TG-0.7 Quality Assurance -- establishes the quality framework governing all ocean accounting data, including the principles of accuracy, coherence, and fitness-for-use that guide the survey design and quality assurance procedures described in this Circular.

3. Guidance Material

Survey methods play a critical role in measuring the ocean economy. While administrative data sources are valuable, surveys provide the detailed information required to measure economic activity across ocean-related industries, capture employment characteristics, and understand household consumption patterns linked to the ocean. This Circular addresses business surveys (Section 3.1), household surveys (Section 3.2), sampling design considerations (Section 3.3), and quality assurance procedures specific to survey data (Section 3.4). For guidance on data quality considerations applicable across all ocean accounting work, see TG-0.7 Quality Assurance.

The range of data needs for ocean accounting spans multiple domains, each requiring different survey instruments and sampling approaches. Table 3.0 summarises the primary survey types used to collect data on key ocean variables, the sampling frames from which respondents are drawn, and the principal variables of interest. This matrix serves as an orientation for the detailed guidance that follows.

Table 3.0: Ocean data survey type matrix

3.1 Business Surveys

Business surveys are essential for measuring the production, employment, and value added of establishments engaged in ocean-related economic activities. The design of business surveys for ocean accounting builds upon established practices in economic statistics while addressing the specific characteristics of ocean industries.

The role of business registers

The statistical business register is the foundation for business surveys targeting ocean industries. A business register is a central listing, usually maintained by the national statistical office or taxation authority, that contains information on all establishments and enterprises within an economy^[1]. For each unit, the register typically records industry classification, geographic location, employment size, turnover, and ownership characteristics^[2].

The UN Guidelines on Statistical Business Registers provides best practices for the development and maintenance of business registers^[3]. For ocean accounting purposes, the business register serves three critical functions:

1. Frame population -- identifying the universe of ocean-related establishments from which samples can be drawn
2. Stratification variables -- providing size and location information for designing efficient samples
3. Auxiliary information -- supplying data for non-response adjustment and estimation

Within the structure of a business register, establishments classified to ocean-relevant industries can be identified using the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC)^[4]. For guidance on how these classifications are applied within ocean accounting, see TG-0.2 Overview of Relevant Statistical Standards. The key ISIC classes for the ocean economy include:

Table 3.1: ISIC codes for ocean-relevant industries^[5]

These codes reflect ISIC Revision 4, which remains the current operational classification. ISIC Revision 5 was endorsed by the UN Statistical Commission in March 2024 with implementation expected from 2027. Compilers should monitor the transition timeline and update industry codes as national statistical offices adopt Rev.5, consulting TG-0.2 Overview of Relevant Statistical Standards for guidance on classification transitions^[6].

Beyond these directly identifiable industries, many establishments have partial ocean-related activity that cannot be captured through industry classification alone. For example, a construction company may undertake both land-based and marine construction projects. For such partially ocean-related industries, supplementary survey questions are required to determine the ocean share of economic activity^[7].

Survey design for tourism industries

The tourism sector presents particular challenges for ocean accounting because tourism is defined by the characteristics of the visitor, not by a distinct set of industries^[8]. The International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics 2008 (IRTS 2008) and the Statistical Framework for Measuring the Sustainability of Tourism (SF-MST) provide guidance on survey methods for tourism establishments^[9].

Within the structure of a business register, establishments classified as tourism industries can be assessed using variables such as industry class, size in terms of turnover or employment, employment characteristics, ownership (resident or non-resident), and legal entity type^[10]. For coastal and marine tourism specifically, geographic location becomes a critical variable. Establishments can be flagged as "coastal" based on their proximity to the shoreline, enabling identification of coastal tourism activities within the broader tourism industry frame^[11].

The SF-MST framework provides the basis for compiling thematic and extended accounts for tourism that integrate environmental dimensions. Coastal and marine tourism measurement within ocean accounts should draw on the SF-MST methodology for defining tourism industries and measuring their economic contribution. Where countries develop dedicated ocean tourism accounts, the survey instruments described in this section supply the primary data inputs. For the broader framework within which tourism data are organised, see TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean.

Generalised annual economic surveys typically provide information on the number of establishments classified by industry, output by source of revenue, intermediate consumption, employment and compensation of employees, and investment^[12]. However, tourism-specific surveys may be required to capture the share of output attributable to visitors and to distinguish between domestic, inbound, and outbound tourism expenditure.

Survey content for ocean industries

Business surveys targeting ocean industries should collect the following categories of information:

Economic variables:

• Output/turnover by product type
• Intermediate consumption by category
• Compensation of employees
• Gross fixed capital formation
• Inventories

Employment variables:

• Number of jobs (full-time equivalent)
• Employment by occupation
• Employment by sex
• Casual and seasonal employment patterns

Ocean-specific variables:

• Share of activity directly ocean-related
• Geographic location of operations (including at-sea activities)
• Type of marine resources used or accessed
• Environmental management practices

The Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended Methodological Framework 2008 (TSA:RMF 2008) provides a template for organising data on tourism industries that can be adapted for broader ocean economy thematic and extended accounting^[13]. Table 5 of the TSA:RMF records production by tourism industries, detailing the tourism characteristic products produced by each industry and summary measures of economic performance. For detailed guidance on compiling ocean economy accounts, see TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean.

Informal economy considerations

In many countries, an important contribution to ocean economic activity comes from the informal economy where there is no registration of economic units^[14]. Small-scale fisheries, informal coastal tourism services, and subsistence activities may be economically significant but are typically not captured in business registers. Conceptually, informal activity and the economic units involved (commonly households) are within the measurement scope, but in practice their inclusion in statistics may not be possible through conventional business surveys^[15].

For countries where informal ocean activities are significant, complementary data collection approaches are required. These may include:

• Household surveys with questions on informal economic activity (see Section 3.2)
• Area-based surveys at landing sites, ports, and coastal markets
• Key informant interviews with industry associations and cooperatives
• Administrative data from fishing licences and vessel registrations

3.2 Household Surveys

Household surveys provide essential data for ocean accounting that cannot be obtained from business surveys or administrative sources. They capture the demand perspective of ocean economic activity, including household consumption of ocean-related goods and services, employment characteristics of workers in ocean industries, and household dependence on ocean resources.

Labour force surveys

Household labour force surveys are an important data source that can in principle cover the entire population of a country, all industries, and all categories of workers, including the self-employed and casual workers^[16]. They can capture economic activity in both formal and informal sectors, as well as informal employment arrangements that are common in many ocean industries, particularly fisheries and coastal tourism^[17].

Importantly, labour force surveys collect data from individuals and thus provide information on persons who may be employed in more than one job (multiple-job holders) and in different industries^[18]. This is particularly relevant for the ocean economy, where seasonal patterns may lead workers to combine ocean employment with other activities throughout the year.

For ocean accounting, labour force surveys can provide estimates of:

• Total employment in ocean industries (using ISIC-coded occupation and industry data)
• Employment characteristics including hours worked, earnings, and job tenure
• Self-employment and casual work patterns
• Multiple job-holding across ocean and non-ocean sectors
• Informal employment in ocean-related activities

The collection of data on employment in the tourism industries should be integrated in the regular national statistical system^[19]. By its nature, employment in tourism industries can be undertaken either in paid employment or self-employment, and it is unlikely that a complete picture can be obtained from a single statistical source.

Domestic tourism surveys

Household surveys based on a stratified sample using spatial, demographic, and socio-economic criteria can be efficient and suitable instruments for measuring domestic tourism activity and related expenditure^[20]. They can provide comprehensive information on both same-day and overnight visitors to coastal and marine areas.

From a household survey perspective, it is possible to observe round trips taken by visitors, providing a more global vision of tourism behaviour than can be obtained from surveys at destination^[21]. For ocean accounting, household tourism surveys can capture:

• Trips to coastal and marine destinations
• Expenditure on ocean-related tourism activities (boat trips, diving, beach recreation)
• Consumption of ocean-derived products (seafood at restaurants, marine souvenirs)
• Time spent in marine and coastal environments

Sample size and design are strongly related to the significance and accuracy of the variables to be estimated. Two issues need consideration when designing domestic surveys to analyse coastal and marine tourism: the unequal distribution of such tourism over the national territory and the high degree of heterogeneity of the population in terms of tourism behaviour^[22].

Household consumption surveys

Household budget surveys or consumption expenditure surveys provide data on household purchases of ocean-derived products, including:

• Fresh, frozen, and processed fish and seafood
• Marine-based supplements and pharmaceuticals
• Ocean-related recreational goods (fishing equipment, diving gear)
• Services for ocean recreation (charter boats, beach access fees)

These data support the compilation of supply and use tables for ocean products and enable estimation of household final consumption expenditure on ocean-derived goods and services.

Survey instruments for household surveys

For household surveys targeting ocean-related topics, questionnaire design should consider:

Trip-based modules (for tourism surveys):

• Identification of coastal/marine destinations
• Purpose and duration of trips
• Transport modes including water transport
• Accommodation types in coastal areas
• Expenditure categories with ocean-specific detail

Employment modules (for labour force surveys):

• Industry of employment with sufficient detail to identify ocean sectors
• Occupation with detail on fishing, seafaring, and marine occupations
• Location of work including at-sea activities
• Seasonality and casualness of employment

Consumption modules (for budget surveys):

• Detailed product codes for fish and seafood
• Services related to ocean recreation
• Purchases during coastal tourism trips

3.3 Sampling Design

Effective sampling design is critical for producing reliable estimates of ocean economic activity. The ocean economy presents distinctive challenges including geographic concentration along coastlines, high variability in establishment size, and seasonal patterns in many ocean industries.

Frame coverage and maintenance

The quality of the sampling frame is fundamental to survey accuracy. For business surveys, the sampling frame is typically derived from the business register. A systematic approach should be in place for updating survey frames to ensure accurate coverage of the target population^[23]. Information gathered during surveys should be used to assess and improve the quality of the frame, especially regarding coverage and the quality of contact variables and auxiliary information^[24].

For ocean industries specifically, frame coverage issues may include:

• Undercoverage of small units -- small fishing vessels and informal operators may not appear in the business register
• Classification errors -- establishments may be misclassified to non-ocean industries
• Geographic coding errors -- coastal location may be incorrectly recorded
• Outdated information -- high entry and exit rates in some ocean industries

The need for an appropriate sampling frame that draws a representative picture from the business register is particularly important for ocean surveys. If samples are drawn on the basis of turnover, employment, or value added alone, there is a risk that information relevant to ocean activity is not representative^[25].

For the marine fishing sector specifically, the general business register may provide incomplete coverage of small-scale and artisanal operators. Vessel registries maintained by fisheries management authorities and fishing licence databases administered by maritime agencies can serve as valuable supplementary frames. These specialised registers typically contain information on vessel characteristics (length, tonnage, gear type), port of registration, and licence holder that are not available in business registers. Where available, a dual-frame design -- combining the business register for larger commercial operations with the vessel or licence register for smaller operators -- can substantially improve coverage. Compilers should assess the overlap between frames and apply appropriate estimation methods (such as screening or weight adjustment) to avoid double-counting units appearing in both frames. For further guidance on integrating administrative and survey data sources, see TG-4.3 Administrative Data Sources.

Stratification strategies

Stratified sampling improves efficiency by ensuring representation across important subgroups. For ocean economy surveys, stratification variables should include:

Size stratification:

• Number of employees or full-time equivalents
• Annual turnover or output
• Vessel tonnage (for fishing and shipping industries)

Geographic stratification:

• Coastal region or port
• Distance from coastline
• Marine area of operation (for fishing vessels)

Industry stratification:

• ISIC class or national equivalent
• Type of ocean activity (fishing, aquaculture, shipping, tourism, offshore extraction)

Appropriate sampling techniques should be used to minimise sample sizes while achieving the target level of accuracy^[26]. For ocean industries characterised by high variability, oversampling of large units (take-all strata) combined with probability sampling of smaller units is typically efficient.

Sample allocation

Sample allocation across strata should balance:

• Precision requirements -- larger samples where greater precision is needed
• Variability -- larger samples in more heterogeneous strata
• Cost -- consideration of differential data collection costs across strata
• Domain estimates -- allocation to support estimates for geographic areas and industry groups

For ocean economy surveys, the geographic dimension often requires explicit consideration. If estimates are required for specific coastal regions or ports, sample allocation must ensure adequate representation in each domain.

Temporal considerations

Many ocean industries exhibit strong seasonal patterns that affect survey design:

• Fishing -- seasonal variation in catches by species and fishing ground
• Coastal tourism -- concentration in summer months in temperate climates
• Offshore energy -- weather-related operational patterns
• Shipping -- trade cycle variations

Survey design options to address seasonality include:

• Continuous surveys -- data collection spread throughout the year to capture seasonal patterns
• Repeated cross-sections -- surveys at multiple reference periods
• Panel surveys -- following the same units over time
• Reference period adjustment -- aligning reference periods with operational cycles

Household survey sampling

For household surveys measuring ocean-related topics, sampling design considerations include:

Household surveys based on a stratified sample using spatial, demographic, and socio-economic criteria can be efficient instruments^[27]. For coastal and marine tourism measurement, geographic stratification is particularly important -- households in coastal areas may have different patterns of ocean-related consumption and recreation than inland households.

Where ocean-related activities are concentrated in specific population subgroups (e.g., fishing communities), screening approaches or oversampling of relevant areas may be required to obtain sufficient sample sizes for detailed analysis.

3.4 Quality Assurance for Survey Data

Quality assurance for survey data encompasses all procedures designed to ensure that survey results are accurate, reliable, and fit for their intended uses. The UN National Quality Assurance Framework Manual (UN NQAF) provides the overarching framework for statistical quality, with specific guidance applicable to surveys^[28]. For the broader quality framework governing ocean accounting, see TG-0.7 Quality Assurance.

Sampling and non-sampling errors

Survey quality is affected by both sampling errors (arising from observing only a sample rather than the entire population) and non-sampling errors (arising from all other sources).

Sampling errors should be measured, evaluated, and documented for all survey estimates^[29]. Standard errors or confidence intervals should be calculated and published alongside point estimates. For complex survey designs (stratified, clustered, or multi-stage samples), appropriate variance estimation methods must be employed.

Non-sampling errors include:

• Coverage errors -- differences between the frame population and target population
• Measurement errors -- differences between collected and true values due to questionnaire design, respondent error, or interviewer effects
• Processing errors -- errors introduced during coding, editing, or data entry
• Non-response errors -- bias arising from non-participation

Sources of possible sampling errors should be identified and described. Non-sampling errors should be identified, described, and evaluated. Information about sampling and non-sampling errors should be made available to users as part of metadata^[30].

Non-response handling

Proper follow-up procedures should be planned and implemented in cases of non-response^[31]. Non-response in ocean industry surveys may arise from:

• Unit non-response -- establishments or households that do not participate at all
• Item non-response -- individual questions left unanswered
• Operational non-contact -- inability to reach at-sea operations or mobile fishing vessels

Strategies for addressing non-response include:

Prevention measures:

• Clear communication of survey purpose and legal obligations
• Respondent-friendly questionnaire design
• Multiple contact attempts using varied modes
• Flexible timing to accommodate seasonal operations

Adjustment measures:

• Weighting adjustments using auxiliary information from the business register
• Imputation for item non-response based on donor values or model predictions
• Analysis of non-response patterns to assess potential bias

Statistical editing procedures and imputation methods should be based on sound methodology^[32]. The effects of data editing and imputation should be analysed as part of assessing the quality of the data collection^[33].

Data validation

Data validation procedures should identify potential problems, errors, and discrepancies such as outliers, missing data, and miscoding^[34]. For ocean economy surveys, validation checks include:

Range checks:

• Are reported values within plausible bounds for the industry?
• Are employment figures consistent with establishment size?
• Are output values consistent with industry averages?

Consistency checks:

• Do components sum to reported totals?
• Are ratios (value added to output, wages to employment) plausible?
• Are reported activities consistent with ISIC classification?

Longitudinal checks:

• Are changes from previous periods plausible?
• Are large changes supported by known economic events?

Cross-source validation:

• Are survey results consistent with administrative data (tax records, fishing licences)?
• Do aggregated survey results align with independent benchmarks?

Integration of multiple data sources

As it is hardly feasible to comprehensively gauge and analyse ocean economic activity on the basis of only one statistical source, the integration of data from different sources is a preferable solution^[35]. This method yields more comprehensive information, provides a better overview and a more consistent picture, and results in more accurate analysis.

For ocean accounting, data integration may involve:

• Combining business survey data with administrative records (customs, licences, tax)
• Linking household survey data with business survey data for supply-use balancing
• Using geospatial data to assign economic units to coastal/marine domains
• Reconciling survey estimates with national accounts aggregates

An important case of multi-source integration arises in fisheries, where administrative data from fisheries management systems -- including catch reporting, landings statistics, vessel monitoring system (VMS) data, and observer programme records -- provide a rich complement to survey-based approaches. In many countries these administrative sources capture volume and species composition of fish landings more comprehensively than business surveys alone. Survey data remain essential for measuring the economic dimensions (value added, employment, costs) that administrative systems typically do not cover. The recommended approach is to use administrative catch and landings data as benchmarks against which survey-based production estimates are validated, and to reconcile discrepancies through structured confrontation using the methods described in TG-4.3 Administrative Data Sources^[36].

When integrating data from multiple sources, the quality of linkage procedures should be tested^[37]. Metadata related to different data sources should be available, including concepts and definitions, classifications, coverage compared to target population, and other quality aspects^[38].

Quality documentation

Quality has to be assessed and documented for all data sources used in ocean accounting^[39]. Quality documentation for survey data should include:

• Methodology description -- sampling design, data collection procedures, estimation methods
• Accuracy measures -- sampling errors, response rates, imputation rates
• Comparability notes -- changes from previous surveys, deviations from standard methods
• Fitness-for-use guidance -- appropriate uses and limitations of the data

The concept of data quality encompasses factors of relevance, timeliness, accuracy, coherence, interpretability, and accessibility^[40]. Survey programmes should be designed and documented with attention to all these dimensions.

4. Worked Examples

4.1 Ocean economy survey module design -- synthetic worked example

A national statistical office seeks to compile ocean economy thematic accounts for the first time. The office decides to augment the existing annual economic survey with a supplementary module targeting establishments in partially ocean-related industries to estimate the ocean share of their activity. The compilation procedure follows this sequence:

Step 1: Industry scope determination. Working with TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean, the compiler identifies ISIC classes that require ocean share estimation. These include:

• ISIC 1020 (Processing and preserving of fish) -- may process both marine and freshwater fish
• ISIC 5510 (Short-term accommodation) -- coastal establishments serve both marine tourism and other visitors
• ISIC 4721 (Retail sale of food) -- coastal fish markets and seafood retailers

Step 2: Survey instrument design. For each target industry, a short supplementary questionnaire is designed asking:

1. What percentage of your total output/turnover in the reference year was directly related to ocean or marine activities? (0-100%)
2. What percentage of your employment was engaged in ocean or marine activities? (0-100%)
3. Please describe the nature of the ocean-related activity (open text)

Step 3: Survey administration. The supplement is included in the annual economic survey mailout for the 850 establishments in the target industries. Response rate is 78% (663 usable responses).

Step 4: Compilation and validation. For each industry class, the weighted mean ocean share is computed across responding establishments. For ISIC 1020, the mean ocean share is 72%; for coastal ISIC 5510, the mean is 45%; for ISIC 4721, the mean is 28%. These ratios are then applied to the full industry output and employment aggregates from the annual economic survey to derive ocean economy estimates.

Step 5: Account integration. The ocean share estimates are combined with the output, intermediate consumption, and employment data for the partially ocean-related industries. These are then aggregated with data for wholly ocean-related industries (fishing, aquaculture, maritime transport) to produce the ocean economy totals that feed into TG-2.5 Structure and Function of the Ocean Economy indicators.

This worked example demonstrates the core compilation sequence: determine scope → design instrument → collect data → estimate ocean shares → integrate into accounts. The approach is scalable and can be adapted for different national contexts.

4.2 Stratified sampling for marine fishing establishments

A national statistical office seeks to estimate gross output and employment for the marine fishing industry. The business register contains 2,400 fishing enterprises classified to ISIC 0311 (Marine fishing). Register data shows high skewness in the size distribution: 150 large operations account for 65% of total industry employment.

Frame preparation:

• The register is cleaned to remove ceased operations and update contact information
• Enterprises are geocoded to coastal regions

Stratification:

Table 4.1: Sample allocation for marine fishing survey

Estimation: Estimates are calculated using Horvitz-Thompson estimators with design weights equal to the inverse of the sampling fraction. Variance estimates account for the stratified design.

4.3 Household survey module for coastal tourism

A household tourism survey includes a module to measure visits to coastal and marine destinations. The module asks:

1. In the past 12 months, did you take any trips (overnight or same-day) to coastal or beach destinations?
2. [If yes] How many trips to coastal/beach destinations did you take?
3. For your most recent coastal trip:
   • Main destination (locality/region)
   • Duration (number of nights, or same-day)
   • Main purpose (holiday, visiting friends/relatives, business, other)
   • Activities undertaken (beach recreation, swimming, diving/snorkelling, fishing, boat trips, other)
   • Total expenditure on the trip
   • Breakdown by category: accommodation, food/drink, transport, activities, shopping

Survey results are weighted using household sampling weights and grossed to the national population. Expenditure estimates are compared with administrative data from accommodation establishments in coastal areas for validation.

5. Acknowledgements

This Circular has been approved for public circulation and comment by the GOAP Technical Experts Group in accordance with the Circular Publication Procedure.

Authors: GOAP Data Collection Working Group

Reviewers: To be confirmed

6. References